Lesson 14
 Topic: BRUNER'S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

   The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957).

The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).

In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966),  Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:

• Enactive representation (action-based)
• Iconic representation (image-based)
• Symbolic representation (language-based)

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Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory.

Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.

Enactive (0 - 1 years)

This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle.

Iconic (1 - 6 years)

This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.

The Importance of Language

Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition.

Educational Implications

For Bruner's (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.

Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.

Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system.

Bruner and Vygotsky

Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning.

Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.

Bruner and Piaget

Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an important difference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they coexist.

MY REFLECTION

In this lesson students can easily understand the lesson that the teacher discussing and it also help students to more creative.

Lesson 16
 Topic: Goals Theories in Learning

Goal theory is the label used in educational psychology to discuss research into motivation to learn. Goals of learning are thought to be a key factor influencing the level of a student's intrinsic motivation.

• Task/ego involvement

A student is described as task-involved when he is interested in the task for its own qualities. This is associated with higher intrinsic motivation. Task-involved students are less threatened by failure because their own ego is not tied up in the success of the task.^[1]

A student who is ego-involved will be seeking to perform the task to boost their own ego, for the praise that completing the task might attract, or because completing the task confirms their own self-concept (e.g. clever, strong, funny etc...) Ego-involved students can become very anxious or discouraged in the face of failure, because such failure challenges their self-concept.

• Approach/avoidance goals

  Not all goals are directed towards approaching a desirable outcome (e.g., demonstrating competence). Goals can also be directed towards avoiding an undesirable outcome (e.g., avoiding the demonstration of incompetence to others).

It is thought that approach goals contribute positively to intrinsic motivation whereas avoidance goals do not.
Most of human behavior is directed by goals and needs. Goals range from personal to professional, from being happy to doing well in school, from short-term to long-term and the list could go on and on. Needs can be objective and physical or subjective and psychological. This lesson will distinguish between the constructs of goals and needs. We will also discuss differing types of goals as they relate to academics and learning.

You may understand the definition of need to be anything necessary for an organism to survive. For example, a plant needs sunlight to survive, or a human needs food and water to survive. In psychology, however, the concept of need assumes a slightly different definition. To psychologists, a need is a psychological feature that drives a human or animal toward a goal or behavior. Examples of this definition include a need for achievement, a need for affiliation with others and a need for attention.

Let's move on to goals. Goal orientation theory is a social-cognitive theory of achievement motivation. Goal theory became a particularly important theoretical framework in the study of academic motivation in the late 1980s. Whereas other motivational theories examine students' beliefs about their successes and failures, goal orientation theory examines the reasons why students engage in their academic work.

A core goal is a long-term goal that drives much of what an individual does. These long-term goals help direct behavior toward achievement and success. Let's meet Jack. Jack is a freshman in college. Jack wants to go to medical school after completing his undergraduate degree. Jack's core goal is to get accepted into the most prestigious medical school in the country.

Short-term goals, referred to as proximal goals, are more concrete and can be accomplished within a short time period. One can think of proximal goals as a stepping stone toward a longer-range goal. Jack has many proximal goals in order to help him achieve his core goal of getting accepted into a prestigious medical school. He has a GPA goal of 4.0 for his first semester in college, a goal of taking the MCATs within two years and a goal of volunteering 50 hours a semester at the local hospital. All of these goals can be achieved in a short duration of time and will ultimately help Jack achieve his core goal.

Mastery vs. Performance Goals

The work of early goal theorists contrasted two types of goal orientations: mastery, which is a desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills, and performance, which is a desire to demonstrate high ability and make a good impression. Recent works of goal theorists have incorporated a second dimension of goal orientations: approach and avoidance.

Mastery-oriented goals are defined in terms of a focus on learning, mastering the task according to self-set standards or self-improvement. It also encompasses developing new skills, improving or developing competence, trying to accomplish something challenging and trying to gain an understanding or insight.

Performance-oriented goals represent a focus on demonstrating competence or ability and how ability will be judged relative to others. For example, trying to surpass normative performance standards, attempting to best others, using casual comparative standards or striving to be the best in a group or even avoiding judgments of low ability or appearing dumb are examples of performance-oriented goals.

Approach-oriented goals are goals in which individuals are positively motivated to look good and receive favorable judgment from others.

Avoidance-oriented goals are goals in which individuals can be negatively motivated to try to avoid failure and to avoid looking incompetent.

Let's explore these concepts and incorporate the second dimension of approach and avoidance. We are joining Jack in his freshman anatomy and physiology class.

For a mastery approach example, Jack's goal in the class is to learn all of the features of the human body because he is interested in anatomy and physiology and wants to be able to build his base knowledge of these principles.

For a mastery avoidance example, Ashley's goal in class is to avoid misunderstanding the features of a human body and principles of human physiology as presented to her by her teacher.

For an example of performance approach, Hillary's goal in class is to identify all of the bones, muscles and tissues in the human body more quickly and better than her classmates.

And for performance avoidance, Max's goal in class is to avoid appearing incompetent at identifying anatomy or applying principles of physiology.

It is important to note that students can hold multiple goals simultaneously; thus, it is possible for a student to be both mastery-approach-oriented and performance-approach-oriented. Such a student truly wants to learn and master the material but is also concerned with appearing more competent than others.

 MY REFLECTION

Everyone of us has its own goals on how we encountered this until we commit so that we have so many ways to achieve that different goals.

Lesson 17
  Topic: Human Environmental Factor that Affecting Motivation

   The immediate human factors that surround the learner are the teachers, the other students and his/her parents.

Fairness and respect-These are shown in specific behaviors like:

- treating students as people 
-practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness
-provbiding students with opportunities for them to participate and to succeed 
Social interactions with students -The specific behaviors of a facilitative social interaction are:
- Working with students not for the students 
-interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
-having of sense of humor and willing to share jokes
-allowing students to participate in decision making
Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:
-setting high standards 
-assigning appropriate challenges 
-encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
-providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
Attitude toward the teaching profession
- serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her students and colleagues
-working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
-helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
(abstraction/generalization)
teacher's affective traits
Be grateful to those who were not not as motivating and inspiring, in a way , they also helped you become better person in the sense that you strived to become better than them. (James H. Stronge, 2002):
Caring- Specific attributes that show caring are:
-sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the classroom but more about students' lives in general.
-understanding of students' questions and concerns.
-knowing students individually, their likes and dislikes, and personal situations affecting behavior and performance.
human environmental factors affecting motivation
Positive expectations of students manifested in:
-striving to make all students feel competent
-having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief that they can cause all students learn
Reflective practice:
-reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
-eliciting feedback from others in the interest or teaching and learning
Classmates- bullying and the need to belong
Students from part of the human environment of the learner. in fact, they far outnumber the teachers in the learning environment.

MY REFLECTION

In this lesson we need to be more positive to encounter our students to motivate their self and also in environmental factor that commonly served us on how important it in whatever problems they encountered or experienced.

Lesson 18
 Topic: Teaching Strategies For Facilitating Positive Motivational Processes in Learning

Lesson Plan- A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction, or 'learning trajectory' for a lesson.

Three Components

• Learning objectives
• Activities
• Tools to check for understanding

Steps for Preparing Lesson Plan

(1) Outline learning objectives

The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following questions:

• What is the topic of the lesson?
• What do I want students to learn?
• What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of class?
• What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?

Once you outline the learning objectives for the class meeting, rank them in terms of their importance. This step will prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more important learning objectives in case you are pressed for time. Consider the following questions:

• What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students to be able to grasp and apply?
• Why are they important?
• If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?
• And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time?

(2) Develop the introduction

Now that you have your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific activities you will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned. Because you will have a diverse body of students with different academic and personal experiences, they may already be familiar with the topic. That is why you might start with a question or activity to gauge students’ knowledge of the subject or possibly, their preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll: “How many of you have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have.” You can also gather background information from your students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking them to write comments on index cards. This additional information can help shape your introduction, learning activities, etc.  When you have an idea of the students’ familiarity with the topic, you will also have a sense of what to focus on.

Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-world example, short video clip, practical application, probing question, etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:

• How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any preconceived notions about it?
• What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that students might be familiar with or might espouse?
• What will I do to introduce the topic?

 (3) Plan the specific learning activities (the main body of the lesson)

Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As you plan your examples and activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. These questions would help you design the learning activities you will use:

• What will I do to explain the topic?
• What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
• How can I engage students in the topic?
• What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students understand the topic?
• What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?

(4) Plan to check for understanding

Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to check for student understanding – how will you know that students are learning? Think about specific questions you can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you want students to respond orally or in writing. You can look at Strategies to Extend Student Thinking, to help you generate some ideas and you can also ask yourself these questions:

• What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?
• What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?
• Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check whether each of those has been accomplished?

An important strategy that will also help you with time management is to anticipate students’ questions. When planning your lesson, decide what kinds of questions will be productive for discussion and what questions might sidetrack the class. Think about and decide on the balance between covering content (accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand.

(5) Develop a conclusion and a preview

Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can do this in a number of ways: you can state the main points yourself (“Today we talked about…”), you can ask a student to help you summarize them, or you can even ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the main points of the lesson. You can review the students’ answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then explain anything unclear the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the main points, but also by previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one that’s coming? This preview will spur students’ interest and help them connect the different ideas within a larger context.

                                              SUGGESTION IN MAKING LESSON PLAN

• A lesson is an aid to teaching.
• A lesson plan should not be too detailed . 
• Lesson plan should be planned with in time allotment for the subject.
• The textbook should not be regarded as in fallible.
• The lesson may serve as basis for future plans and a means of evaluation the success of learning.

MY REFLECTION

   As a future teacher this lesson help us doing our daily lesson plan to achieve our goal in teaching.

Lesson 11
  Topic: NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN and BANDURA
  Reporter: Johana P.Sandigan and
                  Rizza Mae Cedudano

1. 
   
2.    Neo Behaviorism is a behavior cannot be full understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions. Neo behaviorism introduce mediating variables into the behaviorist stimulus-response scheme.
3.    Neo Behaviorism Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism Goal Directedness Cognitive Maps Latent Learning Intervening Variables Bandura’s Social Learning Theory General Principles Contemporary Social Learning Perspective Cognitive Factors Educational Implication

• Purposive Behaviorism - it is also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often unite between behaviorism and cognitive theory
• Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
• Tolman’s system was called purposive behaviorism because it studies behavior as it is organized around purposes.
• Learning is always purposive and goal- directed. Individuals act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive towards goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive, and cognitive.
• Cognitive map Learning the location of reward. Once an individual has learned where a given kind of reward is located, that location can often be reached by means other than those originally used.
• Latent Learning Whenever learning goes on without its being evident in performance at the time.
• The concept of intervening variable These are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior.
• Reinforcement not essential for learning Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance
• 1.Learn by observing. 
• 2. Learning can occur through observation alone, without a change in behavior. 
• 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. 
• 4. Transition between behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.

1. 1. Contemporary Theory purposes that reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning.
2. 2. Reinforcement and Punishment influence the result of individuals’ behavior that has been learned.
3. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes.

• Learning without performance 
• Cognitive processing during learning
• Expectations
• Reciprocal causation
• Modeling

1. Students often learn a great deal by simply observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease the inappropriate ones.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.

5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

MY REFLECTION

  In this lesson the students are learned in observing their classmates or other people around them. It also applied the beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive towards their goals.

Lesson 10
   Topic: BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism- focuses on the study of observable and measure to behavior.

IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)- Russian psychologist, a well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Extinction- if stop pairing the bell with the foods, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.

Classical Conditioning

Stage 1. Before Conditioning

              Bell (Neutral Stimulus) _____No Response

Stage 2. Bell (Neutral Stimulus) _____MEAT (unconditioned stimulus)

                                     paired with-----SALIVATION (unconditioned response)

Stage 3. After Conditioning 

              Bell (conditioning stimulus)--SALIVATION (conditioned response)

Spontaneous Recovery- extinguished responses can be ''recovered'' after an elapsed time.

Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and we would not.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE (1874-1944)- connectionism theory gave the original S-R framework or behavioral psychology.

Main Principle- that learning could be adequately explain without considering any observable internal states.

• Law of Effect- states that a connection between stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence in negative.
• Law of Exercise- tells us that the more an S-R bond is practiced the stronger it will become.
• Law or Readiness- states that the more readiness the learners has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

JOHN WATSON (1878-1958)- was the firs american psychologist to work with Pavlov's ideas. Initially in animal studies, then later become involved in human behavior research.

Experiment on Albert

- applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES AND REFERENCES

RESOURCES

• McSweeney and Murphy: The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning. This brand new book contains an up-to-date, inclusive account of a core field of psychology research, with in-depth coverage of operant and classical conditioning theory, its applications, and current topics including behavioral economics.

                                     RELATED THEORIS:

Classical and Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end.
• Behaviorism
  

  Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of "stimulus-response." All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal…
• Discovery Learning (Bruner)
  

  Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves. Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-)
•                                                                            MY REFLECTION
•  In this topic, I've learned that as an individual must have to find or must to experience a lot for us to become a good educator in the future. Since behaviors are the main reason for us to become happy and sad, it will serves as a lesson for us to become mentally improve.

Lesson 9

 TOPIC: DISABILITY
 REPORTER: NIEZEL JOY GLAVEN

     DISABILITY- is measure impairment or limitations that interferes with a person's ability for example: to walk, hear, or learn.
    HANDICAP- is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment.

Categories of Expectations

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

• Learning Disabilities- involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language memory or metacognition.

• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder- ADHD is manifested in both of these:

• Speech and Communication Disorders- is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorder, inability to produce the sounds correctly.

Social Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

• Autism- is condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests.
• Mental Retardation- refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.
• Emotional/ conduct disorders- involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

• Physical and Health Impairments- physical or medical condition.
• Severe and Multiple Disabilities- refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability.

Sensory Impairments

• Visual Impairments- condition when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
• Hearing Impairments- malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds with the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness- involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

People First Language

• adding genetic language
• emphasizing abilities, not limitations.
• avoiding euphemisms
• avoiding implying illness or suffering

MY REFLECTION

 Explain the different social and emotion and behavioral of difficulties to assure and all know the if person have a disability and health impairments that interferes with a person disability and secure the situation on how they socialize of others. We all know also the learning can affect for the situation of individual.